Stories from Deli

Jeremiah Jenks, 1902

The Straits Settlements consist of the island of Singapore, the island of Penang, with the adjoining Province of Wellesley on the mainland, together with the Dindings, and Malacca. These settlements were transferred from the Indian government to that of the secretary of State for the Colonies April 1, 1887. Since that date, the Cocos Islands and Christmas Island have been placed under the government of the Straits Settlements.

Associated with the Straits Settlements are the Federated Malay States. The governor of the Straits Settlements is, ex officio, high commissioner for the Federated Malay States. The total area of the settlements is 1,542 square miles.

Immigration, necessity and extent

The number of Europeans and Americans in the Straits and Federated States is so small that in order to develop these countries, it is necessary that there should be a large working force of either nations or Asian immigrants. According to the universal testimony, the Malays in both the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States are averse to severe physical labor, and it has seemed necessary in order to develop the mines in the Federated States, as well as to develop the commerce, agriculture, and other industries in the Strait Settlements, that immigration be encouraged.

This immigration has been, for the greater part, Chinese, although a very large number of Indians, mostly Tamils from southeastern India, have also come to the Settlements.

For all these reasons, in order to secure steady immigration, various measures have been employed to insure the protection of the immigrants and their just treatment after they have reached the colony, as well as to encourage more of them to be willing to come to a foreign country, even though it be for a comparatively short time. The means employed are, in the main, the same in both the Straits and the Federated States.

The first and perhaps the most important single measure is that establishing the so-called protectorate of the Chinese. The whole machinery for the regulation of Chinese affairs centers in the Protector of Chinese, who is appointed under Ordinance IV, of 1880. His duties consist in carrying out the ordinances which affect Chinese immigration. Besides being the adviser of the Government in all matters which relate to the Chinese, it is his purpose to keep on friendly terms with the influential Chinamen as well as to be in reality the friend and adviser of all Chinese who come into the colony. He has under him an assistant protector in Singapore and two in Penang, together with such other subordinates as lie needs in order to carry on the work. There are corresponding officials in the Federated States.

It is the duty of the protector to see to it that men from his office hoard all ships bringing Chinese laborers to the Settlements; to inspect the depots prepared for the reception of such immigrants on their arrival; to witness the contracts signed between them and their employers, after ascertaining, through careful inquiry, that the coolies understand fully the nature of the contracts which they are making; to inspect the lodging houses on the estates or at the mines where the coolies are employed; to act as the friend and adviser of the Chinaman in case of dispute with his employer, although he is not, of course, expected in such ‘cases to take the position of an advocate regardless of the interests of the employer; and to carry out in general all the detailed work of an office of so great importance. Not the least of his duties is to see that accurate records are kept which may be of service to the police force in keeping order, in detecting criminals, and in punishing, by banishment or otherwise, those who are attempting to use their influence with the Chinese for their own selfish ends or for disturbing the peace of the community.

He has in all the states much discretion regarding the treatment of questions which may arise, and has also certain judicial powers in the settlement of disputes. In addition to the Chinese protector, there are in Singapore and Penang Chinese advisory boards, made up (with the exception of the protector of Chinef’e in Singapore, who is the president of the Singapore board, and of the assistant protector of Chinese, who is the president of the board at Penang) entirely of Chinamen. These Chinamen represent different provinces of China from which the immigrants come, so that they can most readily understand the circumstances which it may be of service to know in dealing with the different cases which may arise.

Classes of immigrants

Besides taking care to have the interests of the immigrants looked after by the protector of Chinese, efforts are also made to induce as many as possible, on reasonable terms, to come to the Straits Settlements for work in the provinces and in the Federated States. The coolies are ordinarily divided into two main classes, the free passengers and the credit-ticket passengers. Those belonging to the first class either really pay the passage themselves or else borrow the money privately to pay their passage, without obligating themselves directly to work off the debt incurred for their passage. Such passengers, of course, provided they pass the examination of the board of health, are not subject to control by the authorities, and are free to go where they please when they land. This class for many years has formed a large majority of the immigrants.

THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS AND FEDERATED MALAY STATES.

The Straits Settlements consist of the island of Singapore, the island of Penang, with the adjoining Province of WPllcsley on the mainland, together with the Dindings, and Malacca. These settlements were transferred from the Indian government to that of the secretary of State for the Colonies April 1, 1887. Since that date, the Cocos Islands and Christmas Island have been placed under the government of the Straits Settlements.

Associated with the Straits Settlements are the Federated Malay States. The governor of the Straits Settlements is, ex officio, high commissioner for the Federated Malay States. The total area of the settlements is 1,542 square miles.

Immigration, necessity and extent

The number of Europeans and Americans in the Straits and Federated States is so small that in order to develop these countries, it is necessary that there should be a large working force of either nations or Asian immigrants. According to the universal testimony, the Malays in both the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States are averse to severe physical labor, and it has seemed necessary in order to develop the mines in the Federated States, as well as to develop the commerce, agriculture, and other industries in the Strait Settlements, that immigration be encouraged.

This immigration has been, for the greater part, Chinese, although a very large number of Indians, mostly Tamils from southeastern India, have also come to the Settlements.

The first and perhaps the most important single measure is that establishing the so-called protectorate of the Chinese. The whole machinery for the regulation of Chinese affairs centers in the Protector of Chinese, who is appointed under Ordinance IV, of 1880. His duties consist of carrying out the ordinances which affect Chinese immigration. Besides being the adviser of the Government in all matters which relate to the Chinese, it is his purpose to keep on friendly terms with the influential Chinamen as well as to be in reality the friend and adviser of all Chinese who come into the colony. He has under him an assistant protector in Singapore and two in Penang, together with such other subordinates as lie needs in order to carry on the work. There are corresponding officials in the Federated States.

It is the duty of the protector to see to it that men from bis office hoard all ships bringing Chinese laborers to the Settlements; to inspect the depots prepared for the reception of such immigrants on their arrival; to witness the contracts signed between them and their employers, after ascertaining, through careful inquiry, that the coolies unders_tand fully the nature of the contracts which they are making; to inspect the lodging houses on the estates or at the mines where the coolies are employed; to act as the friend and adviser of the Chinaman in case of dispute with his employer, although he is not, of course, expected in such cases to take the position of an advocate regardless of the interests of the employer; and to carry out in general all the detailed work of an office of so great importance.

Not the least of his duties is to see that accurate records are kept which may be of service to the police force in keepin~ order, in detecting criminals, and in punishing, by banishment or otherwise, those who are attempting to use their influence with the Chinese for their own selfish ends or for disturbing the peace of the community. He has in all the states much discretion regarding the treatment of questions which may arise, and has also certain judicial powers in settlement of disputes.

ln addition to the Chinese protector, there are in Singapore and Penang Chinese advisory boards, made up (with the exception of the protector of Chinef’e in Singapore, who is the president of the Singapore board, and of the assistant protector of Chinese, who is the president of the board at Penang) entirely of Chinamen. These Chinamen represent different provinces of China from which the immigrants come so that they can most readily understand the circumstances which it may be of service to know in dealing with the different cases which may arise.

Classes of immigrants.

Besides taking care to have the interests of the immigrants looked after by the protector of Chinese, efforts are also made to induce as many as possible, on reasonable terms, to come to the Straits Settlements for work in the provinces and in the Federated States. The coolies are ordinarily divided into two main classes, the free passengers and the credit-ticket passengers. Those belonging to the first class either really pay the passage themselves or else borrow the money privately to pay their passage, without obligating themselves directly to work off the debt incurred for their passage. Such passengers, of course, provided they pass the examination of the board of health, are not sub3ect to control by the authorities, and are free to go where they please when they land. This class for many years has formed a large majority of the immigrants.

In 1889, for example, the number of passengers who landed in Singapore was 98,592, of whom 86,630 were paid passengers and 11,962 were unpaid. In the year 1900, out of 175,414, 25,533 were unpaid passengers and 149,881 paid, the percentage of unpaid passengers having risen from 12.13 in 1889 to 14.56 in 1900. Formerly there were two classes of credit-ticket passengers whose · passages were paid by some person who held the coolies responsible.

In earlier times, coolies were sometimes brought down on credit by the ships, and were retained on board the ship until someone redeemed them by paying expenses and a certain margin of profit to the ship. This plan, however, has been practically entirely given up. Under the second plan, which is still in vogue, a broker brings down the coolies on speculation, or after making an agreement with some estate or mine owner to take a certain number of them. These coolies, when taken from the ship, are regularly placed in a depot in Singapore or Penang, where they are kept behind locked doors under government inspection until the formal contract is signed with their employer.

Ordinarily the employers have made their wishes known to the agents or brokers, and, in many cases, these, in turn, have practically made contracts through their agents in China with the Digitized by Google 48 coolies, so that the formal contracts are signed within a day or two, and the coolies are taken at once to the estate or to the mine where they are to work. In case a coolie has not been entitled within ten days, be can not, under the law, be forcibly detained in the depot longer. If the reason for his failure to make a contract is that he is permanently incapacitated for work, he must be returned to China at the expense of the agent.

If he is unable to get a contract simply on account of a slack demand-a case which very rarely happens- the protector of Chinese often persuades him to remain in the depot for some days longer under the suggestion, which doubtless at times may be taken as a threat, that he is likely to get into trouble on the stl’eets with others, when it would be necessary to arrest him and lock him up. The protector, of course, makes every effort, as does the agent, to secure good contracts for all as soon as possible.

Wage and cost of importation

ln the Straits Settlement at the present time, at any rate in Penang and the province Wellesley, the usual amount charged for passage and expenses is $19.50. The Chinaman is expected to work three hundred and thirty days in the year. In case the employer makes advances so that the entire amount is not repaid within the year, or if, through the fault of the Chinaman on account of imprisonment or other similar reason, he can not work out the contract within the year, he may he held for debt longer, but in any case for not more than two working years.

The wages regularly paid vary somewhat with the kind of work and with the different years. Those working on the plantations perhaps most frequently get about $30 (the silver Straits dollar) the first year, from which the cost of transportation and support ($19.50) must he deducted. Those working in the mines receive more, ordinarily $42 for the first year. The coolie is usually supplied free with lodging, food, and a certain amount of clothing, although the usage differs somewhat in different places.

Contracts.

Two forms of contracts are common. Under one, the more usual one for the credit-ticket coolie, the employer agrees to pay a certain amount per year, as has already been suggested, with certain provisions regarding the number of hours to be worked each day, number of days to be worked in the year, provisions for the laborer’s arrest  if he shall abscond, etc.

On agricultural estates, and in connection with the mines in the Federated Malay States, it is common for the coolie to take certain jobs at special rates instead of working by the day. Under those circumstances, he is not limited as regards the length of time he shall work each day, and he has the opportunity of making considerably more than would be possible under the daily wage. The Chinese much prefer this form of the contract whenever it rs practicable, and their work under this form of contract is ordinarily more satisfactory than under the other. The law permits, in most cases, the substitution of certain tasks at fixed rates instead of the contract by the day, provided the task set has the approval of the protector of Chinese.  

ln the working of the tin mines, however, the most common custom is for the coolie to work on the cooperative plan. The mine owner receiver, under the ordinary contract of this form, 10 per cent of the entire product for his share. The person who makes the advances of food, of necessary capital, and so on, makes his profits through the gains regularly made In supplying these goods. The remainder of the income from the sale of the ore is divided among the workers. When a Chinese miner takes a share in a mine worked on this cooperative plan, he is not compelled himself to take part in the actual labor, hut 1s permitted, if he prefers, to furnish a substitute. Such contracts ordinarily contain careful rules regarding the hours of labor, the number of days to be worked each month, the forms of accounting, regulations for keeping the peace, etc. They have to be registered in the office of the secretary for Chinese affairs, and this secretary is ordinarily referred to in case of disputes

This form of contract seems to appeal to the Chinese coolie, who, under most circumstances, is fond of gambling and speculation in any form. It seems to be a very common experience in these States, however, that the persons who advance the money for opening the mine and who supply provisions, tools, etc., together with the Chinese manager, who has the distribution of such supplies, make the chief profit. The coolies are, of course, sure of food, clothing, and some advances for opium, etc., but the accounts at the end of the year very often show that there is no surplus left to be divided among the miners, while it is not uncommon for the advances, who, to all appearances, is rapidly growing rich; to be compelled, according to the accounts, to lose part of the sum which has been advanced. The profits that he makes on his supplies doubtless are sufficient to enable him to endure these losses with a reasonable degree of equanimity.

Control of the coolie.

After the coolie has received his advance, it is not uncommon for him to endeavor to abscond and to reengage with another employer. The laws to prevent this are somewhat rigid. The absconding coolie may be arrested by the employer and taken before a magistrate, who, if the case is made out, will impose a fine, which must be worked out by the coolie. In case the coolie has already engaged for work upon another estate, so that there is no danger of his escaping) he can be arrested only on a warrant issued by a magistrate. The provisions regarding the arrest of the coolie are accompanied by others for bis protection. In case he feels that he has cause for complaint against the master, either for violation of contract or hardship or illegal treatment, the employer is compelled, on the coolie’s request, to bring him at once before the magistrate to have the matter settled. If the complaint is unjust, the coolie will be fined. If the complaint is a just one, the penalty against the employer is severe. Similar arrangements are made in case the employer causes the arrest of the coolie without sufficient cause.

Health

The State also endeavors to make careful provisions regarding the health of the coolie laborer. Careful regulations are made to secure a sufficient supply of water for drinking purposes and for bathing; the food must be sufficient in amount and of satisfactory quality, to be approved by the protector of Chinese; the lodging houses must be in size and arrangement satisfactory to the protector of Chinese as regards healthfulness. Naturally, they are rude in construction, but in many instances, they are doubtless better than the coolie worker has been accustomed to in his own country. Each coolie has usually a small platform some 3 or 4 feet above the ground and perhaps 7 by 5 feet in size. This is covered with mosquito netting to form a sort of tent. On the platform, he placed his sleeping mat and makes whatever arrangements he pleases for his other possessions.

After the immigrant’s contract has expired, he becomes a free coolie, at liberty, to make contracts to suit himself. These older coolies (laukehs) are, of course, at the present time much more numerous than the contract coolies (sinkehs). They are ordinarily able to secure somewhat higher wages, and they are the ones who most frequently undertake work by the job.

Inspection and control

It is the duty of the protector of Chinese to visit, either in person or by deputy, from time to time, the various estates and mines on which the contract coolies a·re employed, and to make careful inspection regarding their lodging houses, their food, their hours of labor, the nature of the job work assigned, etc. At such times the coolies are encouraged to present to the inspector any complaints which they have, and such complaints arc not rarely forthcoming. They may be regarding personal abuse, such as striking the coolie or other form of cruelty, though such complaints are probably more commonly brought directly before a magistrate, or they may be regarding some breach of contract by the employer, such as attempting to detain the coolie after his proper period of service has expired.

Although each contract is fully explained to the immigrant before it is signed, the most common complaint is one that comes from some misunderstanding of the contract or from the belief that the employer has made an attempt to cheat regarding the number of days worked. As, however, it is the duty of the employer to have posted each month in the general lodging house a list of all the employees with a statement of the time worked by each and the amount still due, these misunderstandings are comparatively easily settled. It seems to be the universal testimony, not merely in the Straits Set.tlements, but also in the Federated Malay States and in Sumatra, that the Chinese coolies are, as a rule, peaceable and comparatively easily controlled, when one considers the large numbers, sometimes running up into the thousands, that are often associated together in one camp.

Each mine or plantation regularly has a Chinese headman, who serves as a go-between for the estate or mine manager and the men. Experience shows that where abuses have arisen, they have more frequently come through the criminal acts of this Chinese boss, who at times fails to interpret properly the wishes of the manager to the men in his charge. The Chinese boss is also more likely to treat his countrymen cruelly than is the European manager. Naturally, among so many men there are at times quarrels, thefts, and other crimes, but so long as they are regularly employed sueh things are, relatively speaking, rare.

When the Chinese become free from their contracts, it happens at times that they associate together as bands of robbers or gamblers, and in this way make trouble for the authorities. The universal opinion, however, is that there is no more of this kind of trouble than is to be expected from so large numbers recruited from among the lower classes of the population, and that there is less trouble than would arise were Europeans or Americans thus crowded together in so large numbers.

Chinese secret Societies

The Chinese, as is well known, are accustomed to form secret societies and to carry out their wishes through the influence of these societies. In somewhat earlier times in both the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States, it was found that these societies at times were made to protect members from the effects of violations of the law. At times also societies organized for worthy motives became rivals in business matters, and so fierce conflicts arose among them that they led to serious disturbances of the peace. In consequence, the government of the Straits Settlements has found it necessary to forbid secret societies among the Chinese, although societies may be organized for certain worthy purposes when registered with a governmental authority, who can thus keep a sufficient amount of control over them. The police and the Chinese detectives employed by the police are continually on the watch for the formation of illegal societies, and the most usual form of dealing with them is to banish, either temporarily or permanently, their leaden. Of late years, although several persons are banished each year, there has been comparatively little trouble from this source.

Gambling

The question of gambling is one of great importance and one which is treated differently by different States. Owing largely to public sentiment in England, it has been thought best to prohibit gambling in the Straits Settlements, and persons detected in keeping gambling houses are arrested and punished. In the Federated States it is usual to sell a gambling- farm. The farmer has a monopoly of opening gambling houses for Chinamen under the restrictions laid down in the law. Ordinarily, the chief farmer sublets this farm in the various localities to those who themselves conduct the gambling houses. The farmers thus licensed by the government are held responsible for conducting their gambling houses in accordance with the law.

It is generally urged in these States that it is impossible to prevent the Chinese from gambling. That in consequence, it is much better to have them compelled to gamble in places that are properly regulated and subject to inspection at any time than to have them consort together for this purpose in disreputable places where the gambling carried on in secret is much more likely to lead to crimes of violence than when conducted in a more open  manner. In addition to this advantage, the State, of court, derives there from a very important revenue.

Opium

In the Straits, no one but an adult Chinaman is allowed to smoke opium in an opium farm shop. Opium can he sold only for cash. It can not be sold at all to any European or native soldier without written permission from the commanding officer. The price is fixed by the governor, the quality is regulated by a government chemist.

Prostitution

It has been necessary also to take some special measures regarding prostitution. It was found that in a good many cases young girls were being imported for immoral purposes. In consequence, special acts for the protection of women and girls have been passed,and the Chinese women coming into the State are placed under the control of the Protector of Chinese. A register is kept of them, and wherever the need is felt of making the record more complete their photographs are kept, and in certain instances bonds are required to secure their proper treatment. In the Federated Malay States a home for women and girls has been founded, which can be placed those women rescued from brothels who might otherwise be forced to continue an immoral life against their will. All such women are given the following notice in English and Chinese: “Whenever a prostitute or girl has a grievance, she may come to the protectorate and complain. Anyone who dares to prevent her will he arrested and severely punished without mercy.”

Jeremiah Jenks. Report on Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in the Orient, 1902 [bk]